What Is Ethics?

The Landscape of Moral Philosophy

Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the question: How ought we to live? But this single question fractures into a constellation of sub-questions, each generating its own tradition of inquiry.

Three Levels of Ethical Inquiry

Philosophers conventionally distinguish three levels:

These levels are not independent. Your metaethical commitments constrain your normative options: if you believe moral facts are mind-independent (moral realism), you will approach normative theory differently from someone who thinks morality is a social construction.

The Big Three Normative Frameworks

Most normative theories cluster around three paradigms:

1. Virtue ethics — focuses on character. The central question is not "What should I do?" but "What kind of person should I be?" Rooted in Aristotle, revived by Anscombe, Foot, and Nussbaum.
2. Deontology — focuses on rules and duties. An act is right or wrong in itself, regardless of consequences. The paradigm case is Kant's categorical imperative.
3. Consequentialism — focuses on outcomes. The right act is the one that produces the best consequences. Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill, Singer) is the dominant form.

Why These Distinctions Matter

"The unexamined life is not worth living." — Socrates, in Plato's Apology 38a

The distinctions above are not merely academic. They shape how we reason about:

• Moral dilemmas — when duties conflict, which framework breaks the tie?
• Public policy — should we legislate for maximum welfare, or protect inviolable rights?
• Personal integrity — can a moral theory demand that I betray my deepest commitments?

The Role of Moral Intuitions

Every ethical theory must reckon with our pre-theoretical moral judgments — the gut reactions we have before any philosophical analysis. W.D. Ross called these prima facie duties. John Rawls formalized the process as reflective equilibrium: we adjust both principles and intuitions until they cohere.

But intuitions can mislead. They are shaped by culture, evolution, cognitive biases. One task of ethics is to determine when intuitions should be trusted and when they should be overridden.

A Map of the Course

Over twelve lessons we will encounter thinkers who disagree profoundly about:

• Whether reason or emotion is the foundation of morality (Kant vs. Hume)
• Whether consequences are all that matter (Mill vs. Williams)
• Whether justice requires equality or merely liberty (Rawls vs. Nozick)
• Whether moral philosophy has limits (Williams)
• Whether ethics demands radical personal sacrifice (Singer)

Each lesson will engage with primary texts, not just summaries. You will be asked to evaluate arguments on their merits, identify hidden premises, and construct your own reasoned positions.

Key Terms for the Course

Let us begin with the philosopher who started it all — at least for the Western tradition.