William of Ockham

Life

William of Ockham was born around 1287 in Ockham, Surrey, England. He entered the Franciscan Order young and studied and taught at Oxford, where he produced his most important philosophical and theological works, including his monumental commentary on Peter Lombard's Sentences.

In 1324, Ockham was summoned to the papal court at Avignon to answer charges of heresy regarding certain propositions in his writings. While at Avignon (1324–1328), he became involved in the Franciscan poverty dispute — the question of whether the Franciscan Order's practice of absolute poverty was endorsed by Christ and the Apostles. When Pope John XXII condemned the Franciscan position, Ockham and other Franciscan leaders fled Avignon in 1328, seeking the protection of Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria in Munich.

Ockham spent the rest of his life in Munich, writing prolifically on political philosophy in defense of the independence of secular authority from papal power. He reportedly told Ludwig: 'Defend me with the sword, and I will defend you with the pen.' He died around 1347, possibly of the Black Death.

Nominalism

Ockham's most consequential philosophical position is his nominalism. He denied the real existence of universals: there is no 'humanity' existing as a real entity in addition to individual human beings. Universals are concepts in the mind (mental terms) that naturally signify individual things sharing certain features. The word 'human' signifies Socrates, Plato, and every other individual human, but there is no extra entity 'humanness' in which they participate.

Ockham's Razor

The principle of parsimony attributed to Ockham — 'Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity' (Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem) — though not stated in exactly these words in his surviving works — captures his systematic practice of eliminating unnecessary metaphysical entities. He rejected the Thomistic real distinction between essence and existence, Scotus' formal distinction, the existence of universals as real entities, and many other scholastic posits that he regarded as explanatorily idle.

Epistemology

Ockham developed an empiricist epistemology centered on intuitive cognition — the direct, immediate awareness of an existing individual thing. This is the foundation of all natural knowledge. Abstractive cognition (knowledge of things in their absence) is derivative. This emphasis on direct experience of individuals, combined with his nominalism, pointed toward modern empiricism.

Political Philosophy

Ockham's political writings argued that the pope's authority is spiritual, not temporal — the pope has no right to depose emperors or interfere in secular governance. He defended the rights of individuals and communities against absolute papal power, and his arguments contributed to the development of theories of natural rights, constitutionalism, and the separation of church and state.

Legacy

Ockham's influence was enormous. His nominalism dominated late medieval philosophy (the via moderna, as opposed to the via antiqua of Aquinas and Scotus). Luther studied in the Ockhamist tradition. The emphasis on parsimony and empiricism influenced the development of modern science. His political thought contributed to the emergence of modern secular political theory.